Research
Validation Studies
Research on field methods and their limits. Sources include Jackson & Pollock (1978), Durnin & Womersley (1974), and Wagner & Heyward's review (1999).
12 sources
What the evidence says
Error evidence
The cited sources use different populations and error measures. Their results are not individual error limits.
Error Evidence
Error evidence for specific equations and study populations:
| Method | Error evidence | Method reference |
|---|---|---|
| Jackson & Pollock 7-Site | No general error range verified | Jackson & Pollock (1985) |
| Durnin & Womersley | In the study of 209 men and 272 women aged 16–72, Table 9 reports errors within ±3.5 percentage points for women and ±5 for men in two-thirds of cases, compared with underwater weighing. | Durnin & Womersley (1974) |
| U.S. Navy | No general error range verified | Hodgdon & Beckett (1984), men: Report 84-11; women: Report 84-29 |
The cited sources use different populations and error measures. Their results are not individual error limits.
Laboratory Standards
DEXA (Dual-Energy X-ray Absorptiometry)
A reference method for assessing body composition (Wagner & Heyward, 1999):
- Used in research and clinical settings
- Provides regional body composition data
Hydrostatic Weighing
Jackson & Pollock (1978) used underwater weighing as their reference:
- Requires water immersion and proper technique
- Provides body density measurements
Skinfold Methods: Evidence and Limits
Jackson & Pollock Validation Studies
The 1978 study assessed men; the 1980 study assessed women:
- In the 1978 study of adult men, the 3-site and 7-site equations had similar body-density errors in cross-validation.
Durnin & Womersley Validation
Age- and sex-specific equations based on four skinfold sites:
- In their study of 209 men and 272 women aged 16–72, Durnin & Womersley (1974), Table 9, report errors within ±3.5 percentage points for women and ±5 for men in two-thirds of cases, compared with underwater weighing.
Parrillo Method
The site uses a nine-site skinfold method attributed to the fitness book by Parrillo & Greenwood-Robinson (1993). No independent validation of this skinfold implementation is cited here.
- No accuracy range is established by the sources cited here.
- The site's protocol requires nine skinfold measurements and body weight
Circumference Methods
US Navy Method Validation
Circumference equations developed for U.S. Navy personnel (Hodgdon & Beckett, 1984, Reports 84-11 and 84-29):
- The original reports assess men and women separately, using underwater weighing as the reference
- The original evidence comes from military populations
YMCA and Modified YMCA
Both variants use body weight and waist circumference:
- YMCA: uses body weight and waist circumference; no validation study is cited here
- Modified YMCA: adds wrist, hip and forearm measurements for women; no validation study is cited here
Covert Bailey Method
Circumference-based method attributed to Bailey's fitness book “The Ultimate Fit or Fat” (2000). No independent validation of this implementation is cited here.
- The sources cited here do not establish an accuracy range.
- Uses age and sex-specific circumference measurements
- Requires a soft tape measure